Anthropology

Jared Diamonds Guns, Germs and Steel The Fates of Human History was widely acclaimed as one of the most detailed exposition of the natural history of humankind. Much of his expositions came from fieldworks and studies done around the world. Such studies that conceived the said book were seen through a very particular perspective. Hence, my thesis statement is that his view on the history of humankind was largely environmentally deterministic.

Many philosophers and scholars view the history of humankind differently and some of the most known thinkers who thought about how the history of humankind came about came from George W. F. Hegel and Karl Marx. Their views were the ones often contrasted on how our history is faring. The formers see human history as a dialectical process where ideas govern every activity and event that shaped our course to the present. On the other hand, the latter see human history as based upon material bases used by various social classes to shape the course of human history. Such material bases are grounded on the economic base structure of the society. Nevertheless, Marx recognized the dialectical process that is shaping human history where these bases are the primary actors unlike Hegels ideas. And instead of these ideas reacting to each other to form the Geist, Marx argued that the material bases that served as the thesis and antithesis of human history will soon form a society that is devoid of contradictions and class struggle created by such material acquisitions in the near future.

From such views, sociologists either try to see look at societies around the world as governed by consensus or conflict where people were the primary actors shaping the course of humankind. Most social scientists think this way however, certain natural scientists think otherwise. In this light, Charles Darwin had a profound impact on the way some social scientists view our history. They are called social Darwinists whose ideas are grounded upon Darwins idea of evolution and survival of the fittest. As such, the point of this exposition is that there may be those who view our history from one perspective where humans are the actors against the backdrop of a rapidly changing human societies, there are also those who view the humankind history from an environmentally deterministic point of view.

Now, the words  environment and deterministic seem as recurring terms and thus will be as such throughout this article, thus, it is imperative that we analyze and try to deconstruct these words against the backdrop of the previous views on history explained on the preceding paragraphs. This will be necessary to help us understand how Jared Diamond came up with his book Guns, Germs and Steel.

First, the word environment connotes various meanings. Throughout the course of human history, environment has well influenced the thoughts and ingenuities of people around the world. From the time where the first man discovered the fire to the time where he created the first agricultural society, environment can be seen as an integral aspect of their lives. What does environment connotes This term implies something that is outside of mans body that can have profound impacts on his being. Environment readily connotes the ecological surrounding upon which the individual resides and depends for his survival.

As can be seen in the modern history of humankind, environment was usually overlooked and its impacts on human societies were seen as rarely influential. Most of the times the people looked upon events and influential figures of history where they play decisive roles such as liberating states and nations or leading as such to victories in war. What they usually miss is that the environment surrounding them was the one responsible why they adapt to such conditions. Why do they come to such constitution is because their environment compels them to. From the hunting and gathering societies and slave societies to fiefdoms and the modern capitalist system, the environment have been one of the most influential entities governing the course of humankinds history.

The environment surrounding the people has been very influential in the way they shaped the way humans have to think to adapt and survive in such precarious situations. For instance, people who live in desert lands have learned to depend on certain plants for water storage and thus for them to be able to survive. Another case is for those individuals who live in tropical islands they were able to learn the way how to distinguish which among variations of plants in their surroundings were the ones edible and which are not. Moreover, they were able to use several measures on how to maximize their capabilities of gathering food and thus surviving. These are the cases by which environment can be said to have influenced the histories of societies around the world.

There is a section in Diamonds book that tackles the importance of environment as necessitys mother. By necessity, this refers to saying that goes necessity is the mother of invention. Nonetheless, Jared Diamond is referring to here of the environment being the mother of the very necessities that compel human societies to turn to their ingenuities and build various equipment and machines to aid them in their daily endeavors.

Why do people build wheels Why do people learned about domestication Why do people invent guns It is because all of these things were the ones necessary for a man to be able to adapt to and maximize the capacity of his environment for him to live to see another day. Indeed, environment shapes the course of humankinds history. Now, we turn to the word deterministic from my thesis statement regarding the said book.

When we say deterministic, it implies hierarchy not in authority but in capacity to determine the being of something by something that is higher and more advanced in its propensity to do so as such. For instance, when you say that your being is determined by your birth and you do not have the freedom to choose what life you would have to take, we say that the virtue of your birth in a particular nationality is that higher being that made you to what you are.

Now, during the course of your life, your decisions were not being largely based upon your own decisions yourself. No man is an island, they say, and your decisions, whims, and caprices will always be based upon something that came external of you, that is, from your surroundings. In this case, you are being determined by your environment.

Going back to Diamonds Guns, Germs and Steel, it is clear that he is implying the situation where the natural histories of various human societies around the world are largely dependent upon their surroundings. For instance, the Aboriginal societies in Australia could not have gone through until now if not for their ingenuity and their incredible ability to adapt in their environment in spite of living in one of the driest places on earth. They could have been able to reproduce such a society if not for their ability to use their environment to their own advantage. Nevertheless, their ingenuities were still determined by such an environment. They could have choose to invent an air conditioning system to cool their houses but they choose to live in small huts that facilitates proper air flow created out of indigenous materials located in their area. Such a situation is the very picture of what the term deterministic implies.

However, you may certainly argue that deterministic is very constraining a term. Indeed, it is a constraining term, hence it is deterministic. But somehow, the term itself allows a room for you to think that deterministic does not necessarily allow you to be passive at all. Deterministic implies that, human societies for this matter are not passive creatures going along with the whims of their environment. This implies a dialectical relationship between societies and their environments where the latter provides the groundwork for the former while societies depend upon the cunningness of the human mind to create various mechanisms for their own good.

As such, Jared Diamonds claims as being environmentally deterministic, I will now try to contrast such thesis with mainstream views of human history. While there are various sociological theories that try to unravel the wonders and blunders of human history, one theory emerged as that which is very influential in the way many social scientists view the evolution of human history. I am referring to the idealistic view of human history. This view traces its roots from Hegels dialectics and has been used analyze the course of events for the past several hundred years.

The idealistic point of view contends that the history of humankind is governed by the flow of ideas  dominant ideas that stem from influential figures and events in our history. For instance, they modern societies today that profess to a liberal democratic type of government as the creation of the French Revolution where the ideas of Liberty, Fraternity, and Equality echoed through France and the Western world in general, while the Bastille, the vestiges of a despotic and capricious monarchy, crumbles to the ground.

Even neoliberal globalization will be argued as the brainchild of a liberal point of view that sees states and governments as necessary to propel the economy of a country, but not so much as to intervene in the natural laws and processes of such system. This is the idealistic point of view of history. Now, if we contrast it with the way Diamond sees the history of mankind, he will argue that such ideas will came in as necessary as societies advance to modern times. The point however is that, these ideas will never advance to the modern age if not for the dictates of their environment. This is how Jared Diamond would see such situation if these perspectives were juxtaposed with each other.
Societies from around the world arguably started out as nomadic, hunting and gathering bands because during the pre-historic times, there are still plenty of resources and world population was scant. Now, when the people learned agriculture, they started to settle down and build the first societies that use advanced technology for survival. Diamond will argue that modern societies now will not come about if not for those things.

The present times is a clear manifestation of how environment could influence the way people think. During the advent of the 20th century, the world saw rapidly changing societies where countries are perceived to be on the pinnacle of technological advancements that there seems to be no stopping them as such. From information technologies and wireless communication to war machines and space race, it is arguably the height of technologies around the world. Yet, in the face of such advancements is the continued degradation of the environment. Henceforth, global warming and greenhouse effect became the talk of the century. But it was never seen as much of threat not until the dawn of the 21st century came.

During this period, people became more aware and concerned of their environment. Along with such growing concern, natural scientists around the world verified the possibility and threats of global warming. In this situation, environment now plays a very influential role in determining what the people think. Nowadays, people around the world confront such issues whether through local adaptations of indigenous societies to mitigation of highly urbanized ones. Environmental degradation such idea of preventing global warming and climate change that re shaping the economic and political systems within the international landscape of the world.

Diamond might be right in this aspect. However, certain perspective in the history of humankind might argue otherwise. A dialectical materialist point of view might argue that human history is governed by contradictions in societies around the world based on the social classes that composed such societies. Such social classes exist according to the materials of production, that is the private properties that they possess. This, in turn, shapes the economic base of the society. Such base determines the political structure and thus, the system that governs individuals and societies around the world. In this case, environment only plays as one of the objects in the materials of production that a particular class might possess. The more important factor that determines the history of humankind is the class struggle that shapes each and every known society.

Let us consider the issue of global warming and climate change, according to the point of view of environmental determinism, perspectives on such issue came from the perceived conditions of the environment surrounding us now. On the other hand, dialectical materialists might argue otherwise and claim that this heated issue is not a supra-class one. Instead, climate change came about, in the first place, because of the way the ruling classes present in modern capitalists economies treat their environments. Now, they frantically search for clues on how climate change came about, pointing fingers at everyone, and still on their search for answers to the said dilemma.

This is how they will view this issue, unlike the idealistic point of view or a largely environmentally deterministic point of view. The environment surrounding these societies is just a witness to an ongoing struggle for political and economic power in society. Much as it has been the witness, it has also been and still being used as an instrument by these classes. Indeed, environmental determinism may prove to be a perspective that can be used upon viewing the history of mankind but still, it provides more question than answers much as the other perspectives do.

In Jared Diamonds Guns, Germs and Steel The Fates of Human History, he arguably presented gripping arguments as to how modern societies came about from such nomadic societies of the pre-historic times. From the weapons that pre-historic people created which became the predecessors of modern war machines to plagues that haunted in each every society around the world across the times, Diamonds arguments are as contentious as they are compelling. While we are provided with unquestionable data from his book, there are still questions such book failed to answer and through a careful reading of the said book, you will see such loopholes. I have seen some and by suing the environmental determinism perspective viz-a-viz idealistic and materialist points of view in history, I was able to stir some questions in the history of humankind that baffled me much as it did to you, I believe.

The point therefore is that, there are many perspectives from which we can view our history. Environmental determinism is one and Jared Diamonds work is one clear example as such. Now, we only have to be very aware that these perspectives have their strengths and weaknesses, we only have to possess critical thinking  one thing that, if it has been because of our surrounding that we came to possess such skill, we have to use for our own good in each of our own battle for survival in this dog-eat-dog world.

The concept of violence is currently regarded as human reaction to specific situations that have inflicted discomfort in an individual.  The complexity of violence has increased in the last centuries, resulting in novel methods of inducing pain, suffering and even death to fellow human beings.  In order to better understand the concept of violence and physical aggression, information from archaeological and evolutionary studies have suggested possible scenarios that may have occurred during earlier periods.  Fossil skeletons uncovered from archaeological sites strongly show evidences of violence, with majority of the skeletons having accumulated fractures, depressions and holes in the skulls, as well as mutilations of other body parts.  Despite the observations of physical torture among fossil remains, there is still yet a need to estimate the period when warfare was first employed during feuds and other forms of aggression.

    Human beings are generally regarded as the most intelligent species among the great apes.  This biological species is often described to be capable of processing concepts, as well as communicating and expressing a wide range of emotions through physical, verbal and mental routes.  In addition, human beings are known to be educated and competent to achieve great accomplishments through training and experience.  However, there have also been certain issues that often put human beings in a position that often requires intimate analysis and comparison to its evolutionary predecessors.  One issue is violence, or physical aggression, that is usually regarded as the resultant emotion when a strong stimulus is presented to a human being that creates a sensation of discomfort (Boehm, 1992).  This report will provide an analysis of the nature of violence and aggression among human beings.

Human beings as member species of the Great Apes
    The highest order of primates is classified as the Great Apes, which is comprised of four species, namely the orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), the gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), the bonobos and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and humans (Homo sapiens).  The Great Apes species are physically featured with an almost erect posture and the presence of an opposable thumb.  The Great Apes are also devoid of a prehensile tail, which is a hallmark of Old and New World monkeys.  Fossil evidence has also shown that the skeletal structures of the Great Apes are also similar in form, yet the inner volume of the skull, which holds the brain, has been determined to be the biggest among humans.

    The advent of molecular biology techniques has also provided additional methods in elucidating the evolutionary connection between the members of the Great Ape species.  According to protein sequence comparisons, the Great Ape species are 98 similar in sequence, indicating that these higher primates must have descended from a common ancestor.  More importantly, the high homology between the protein sequences suggests that the divergence of the members of the Great Apes must have been recent and that this process may have served as the driving force for speciation.
There are also chromosomal rearrangements that have been identified among the Great Apes.  One of the most recognized chromosomal rearrangements is the fusion of chromosomes 13 and 14 in the non-human primates, resulting in the human paralogous chromosome 2.  The mechanism behind this chromosome fusion involves the head-to-head attachment of chromosomes 13 and 14 at the ends of each chromosome, or telomeres, consequent to the deactivation of one of the centromeres of the two chromosomes.  Nucleic acid sequence analysis has shown that the deactivated centromere could still be identified, mainly by screening for primate-specific deoxyribonucleic acid sequences known as alpha satellites.

Fossil record evidence for violence among the Great Ape species
    Fossil evidence has also provided substantial information on the ancestry among the higher primate species.  Excavated skeletons from the Taung quarry in South Africa were determined to have features similar to that of the apes and of humans.  These skeletal remains were then named Australopithecus africanus, to indicate that the fossil was derived from the southern part of this continent.  Aside from the physical similarities of the fossils to both apes and humans, anthropologists have also discovered fractures, holes and depression in most of the fossil skulls, especially those of the adult male skeletons (Fry, 2007a).  These lesions to the head were interpreted as signs of violence, indicative of physical aggression and hostility.  It is thus highly likely that the site of excavation was actually a repository for murdered primates.  It is also possible that certain rituals were performed before the killing of these primeval primates because most of the skulls of these australopithecines were characterized with depressions, or in other cases, holes, on both sides of the head. 

    Further analyses have generated a number of hypotheses that could possibly explain the actions associated with the depressed areas of the skull.  Physical anthropologists have suggested that australopithecines are generally hunters and gatherers and therefore the employment of bludgeons is a routine occurrence to these species.  It is also possible that these primates are carnivorous, as the flesh of other primates may be easier to procure that hunting for other more active mammals in the wild.  These reconstructions of australopithecine operations therefore support the notion that violence among human beings is simply a reflection of the biological descent of primate behavior.  The same similarities were observed during comparisons between aggression among bonobos and chimpanzees (De Waal, 2007).  The bonobos were reported to be more domineering, as compared to chimpanzees, which showed more of the quiet and peace-loving nature (Parker, 2007).  However, the exact nature of such violence among australopithecines remains unresolved, since there is not enough evidence to define the actual reason for such violence, whether this was mainly based on simple murder, a dispute over some important matter or a war between factions or individuals (Bower, 1991).

Archaeological evidence for aggression among earlier human populations
    The earliest accounts of violence and aggression among human beings have been documented approximately 12,000 years ago.  According to archaeological findings in Sudan, a burial site containing almost 60 individuals showed that most of these skeletons harbored skeletal defects that were characteristic of violent death (Fry, 2007b).  Analysts have suggested that this mass grave may have been a site where torture and physical aggression may have been performed to individuals who have been identified as opponents to their group.  This activity may have been a routine occurrence during times of war, as most of the skeletons belonged to adult males who fit the description of soldiers that are responsible for defending their community.

    Another excavation site is that uncovered in Jericho, wherein skeletons were dated back to approximately 10,000 years ago.  The same features of damages and fractures were observed in most of the skeletons, thus strengthening the notion that feuding and warfare are activities that were not recently developed, but have actually been observed thousands of years earlier.  Such observations are direct evidences of warfare and violence during earlier times.  

    The development of warfare during archaeological time points has been rather elusive.  Despite the significant discoveries of mass burial sites across the globe, evidences for actual warfare that date back to at least 10,000 years back have not been uncovered.  However, it is also important to keep in mind that the absence of warfare does not automatically mean that this concept has not been in existence at that point in time.  There are yet other forms of warfare that could have been employed during earlier times, such as simple clubs, as well as daggers that perform the same function of inflicting intense force onto another entity.  In addition, some excavation sites also show mutilation and removal of body parts, implying that physical destruction and pain was intentionally performed on these individuals, resulting in an intense method of torture and ultimately, death to the enemies (Jones, 2008).

    To date, the concept of warfare during the period beyond 10,000 years ago still remains elusive.  One main reason for such dilemma is the absence of archaeological evidence that specific instruments were employed during combat and feuding between individuals.  However, the violence and physical aggression is strongly supported by the injuries that have been embedded in fossil skeletons uncovered in different archaeological sites around the world.

    The capacity of human beings to engage in violence and physical aggression could be traced back to earlier human activities, as well as among the closest evolutionary relatives, namely the Great Ape species.  The discovery of archaeological sites harboring skeletons that are featured with fractures and other forms of physical damages are strong indicators that violence has indeed been an inherent feature of primate and human behavior.  Future discoveries will further strengthen the hypothesis that violence is an evolutionary artifact of the primate lineage.

The Canuck Burgers Corporation of Canada is famous for serving 4lb hamburgers and its fun environment. The place provides a good environment for all age groups from children to old people. The ideal place for Canuck Corporation to open up a new restaurant to move forward with their Target Global Reach Business Development is India. There are many reasons to select this location and will help both, the corporation and their target city equally.

Many food chain restaurants have opened their branch in India and are making a lot of profit. The most prominent of these chain restaurants are McDonalds, KFC, and Dominos. Canuck Burgers Corporation should proceed with their plan to open its branch in Chennai, India, because it will be able to do great business since it is the capital of the Tamil Nadu with the population of 6.9 million (Maps of India, 2010). It is also the fourth largest metropolis of India (Maps of India, 2010). Canuck Burgers have advantage over other restaurants because of the wide range of food offered by it. Its menu includes not only beef but also offers veggie burger. There are about 220 million vegetarians in India today (Moskin, 2004). When people go out to eat in groups, there is always a vegetarian with them. Therefore, a restaurant which offers both vegetarian and non-vegetarian food is an ideal place for most of the population.

The corporation should begin with advertising itself in the area highlight the variety of food their menu offers. Since there are already so many chain restaurants popular in the region, the corporation will have to introduce itself to the masses first. In order to get them to come to Canuck Burgers the corporation will have to offer something the other restaurants dont offer. This should not be a problem for Canuck since the other restaurants in India do not offer the kind of fun environment Canuck has to offer. The Kookamonga Challenge can be used to advertise the restaurant and attract more customers. The youngsters in India will especially take interest in this particular challenge because they are known for participating in such activities. But the main focus of the corporation should be on the menu serving vegan food along with beef. Another point which can be used by the Canuck burgers is its good serving amount. This can be used to attract people who are a little older.

Once Canuck Burgers are made popular and properly advertised, next step should be to find an appropriate location. It should be located in the heart of the city so it is convenient to go to and not completely out of the way. Since Canuck burgers are going to be completely new in that region it is necessary to make sure that it is located in a busy area so more people will see it but not too crowded. The ideal location in Chennai would be somewhere around Royapettah. It is near the Marina Beach of Chennai and Chennai city center (Click India, 2010). The locality is ideal because unlike Nungambakkam, which one of the wealthiest localities, people from all sects of society will be able to come since Marina beach is open to all and the restaurant will not be limited to the rich population alone. Another reason for selecting this locality is that this will not only attract the locals but the tourists who come to visit the beach as well. Since Chennai has mixed population consisting mostly of middle class families, it is important to not make the public feel that the restaurant is just for the rich.

The restaurant will not only benefit the Canuck Burgers but also the local population. The local officials should not have any objection to the opening of the restaurant because it will help improve the local economy. Workers will be hired locally which will provide job opportunities to many people decreasing the unemployment in the city. If the restaurant is a success then the local government will benefit as well through tax. Any benefit the corporation make will indirectly benefit the local government improving the environment and economy of the city.

Canuck Burgers, however, will have to make a few changes and adapt to the local whatever thing. It is better to be careful from the beginning. There are many examples which show how little mistakes can cause major problems in the future. KFC was shut down for many years in India because it was unable to control the MSG level in its food (McSpotlight, 1995). Kelloggs, on the other hand, failed because it was unable to understand the local taste and manage its price. Canuck Burgers will have to first develop a taste which will be liked by the locals. Since most Indians prefer a bit extra spice in their food it will better if Canuck spiced up their menu a bit. Local ingredients should also be added to give a familiar taste to the customer. It will be better if the corporation introduced a variety of vegan burgers and gave more choice to the vegan customer. Different kitchen crew should be used to prepare vegetarian and non vegetarian food so that the sentiments of the vegan population to ensure that no sentiments are threatened. Another thing which should not be ignored is the price. In order to attract the mainstream population Canuck will have to keep the price which is affordable especially by students since they will take special interest in the place. The example of McDonalds can be taken for this. The reason for its success in India is because they focused on the local market, values, and the purchasing power of their customers (Marketing Mag, 2010). In order to survive the local market in Chennai, Canuck Burgers Corporation will have to make sure that its prices are not higher than other food chain restaurants such as Dominos and McDonalds.

If a good strategy is applied the corporation can be a huge success in the locality. Indian culture is very vast and there are many things in the culture which can be used to endorse the brand locally. Since Canuck strives to provide fun time to its customer, it should try to give an environment to which the locals can relate. For marketing, local celebrities should be used since Indian cinema is very popular in the region and their local stars have a huge fan following. The corporation can also market itself by introducing new item on Indian cultural occasions such as Holy and Diwali so that people can emotionally connect with the brand.

Human evolution has been the subject of controversy for many years especially against Creationists who do not want to believe we come from apes. However, science has revealed evidences of the evolution of man from one era to the next. While science has many theories about the evolution of the modern man, one of the main contributors is the environment that forces man to change and adapt in order to survive. There are basically two major hypotheses that dominate the field habitat-specific and the variability selection hypothesis.

There are many evidences that paleoanthropologists have dug up to support the claim that the external environment did change man. The shifts in climate patterns have been found to be affected by many different activities of the earth and the major changes often stay for hundreds of years. Having established that, the nature of organisms is to have a habitat preference and when the habitat changes, they can only relocate to their favored habitat, become extinct, or adapt. The case of man is that of the latter and is called, collectively, the habitat-specific hypotheses. One of the most accepted hypothesis of the habitat-specific hypothesis is the savanna hypothesis which capitalizes on the fact that environmental pressures in of the African savanna influenced the many human adaptations we see today.

There is also what is called the variability selection hypothesis where they claim that humans were not shaped by a single type of habitat or environmental trend, but rather, continuous shifts in the environment due to instability was the cause of human adaptations. The adaptations were developed to cope with different environments rather on just one environment. An enabler for this is genetic adaptations, where natural selection chooses some genetic traits to be more prominent over others. This is coupled with the evolution of structures and behaviors to survive unexpected changes.
As research goes deeper, it was found that the variability selection hypothesis was the more acceptable one with evidences of ancient hominins found in different environments and habitats. Moreover, they were found to be moving around in diverse habitats and environments. These ancient creatures were found to have evolved even more in the area of brain development when they were discovered to have developed tools. These tools aided the hominins in getting significant advantages in the race to adapt to their environment and survive. Many of the uses of these tools were for hunting and slicing game for food. This represents the early beginnings of human technology and has influenced the altering of the diet of the early men.

However, this hypothesis also posed a problem for the early analogs of man some were unable to cope and became extinct over time. Such species include the grass-eating Equus oldowayensis, which was replaced by the Equus grevyi which both graze and browse. Not only were species wiped out, so were ways of life. An example is the Acheulean toolmaking hominins who were able to cope with changing habitats throughout much of the Olorgesailie record, but the Acheulean way of life disappeared from the region. Those who did survive however, were able to tolerate different environments and became scattered in different locations in Africa and Asia. Such early locations were found to be in Dmanisi, Republic of Georgia, Yuanmou, China, Nihewan Basin, China, and Java. These places have different environments, plants, animals, food and climatic conditions (including temperature, aridity and monsoonal rains). New ways of life involved newer tools, social networking, development of communication and symbols, and even ways of conveying them.

The theme of this exhibit is that humans are basically survivors. What we must remember now, being stagnant in our evolution for thousands of years, is how to survive our man-made alterations to our environment as well as the natural alterations that are now occurring. It reminds us of the new challenges to our survival as well as the survival of other organisms in this planet. This also poses the question of how much of our culture and way of life will survive after a few thousand years should evolution run its course once again.

More importantly, the exhibit resonates the ability of man to be ingenious to survive. It encourages people to become ingenious and become better survivors because of the advantages we have over our ancestors, the most glaring being the highly developed brain they have passed on from generation to generation. A fact we should be thankful to evolution for.

The low status of women in traditional Indian society is something well recognized today. According to the myths of classical Hinduism, the process of menstruation in women is due to their assumption of some of the guilt from the god Indras killing of a Brahmin named Visvarupa (Prabhupada 2005).
Female dowry is often cited as the primary practical reason why boys are so much more preferred to girls in Indian society. Parents are obligated to arrange their daughters marriages and a considerably large dowry is traditionally demanded of them by the grooms family. As a result families have to save up a substantial amount of money in order to marry off any of their daughters and consequently daughters are seen as a burden. Sons, on the other hand are seen as blessings because they add considerably to their familys fortunes in the form of their wifes dowry, when they get married. In modern time the Indian government has passed legislation prohibiting the grooms family from demanding dowries. However this sort of legislation has no more than symbolic significance since it is next to impossible to impose. The demand for huge dowries and its attendant problems go on unabated in Indian society. Often the demand for dowry does not cease after the woman is married, the phenomenon of married women being set on fire by their in laws in connection with disputes over dowry and their subsequent deaths being blamed on stove explosions is a common story in modern day India (Menski 1998).

As a result of the widespread notion that girls are a burden to their parents, female infanticide was common in some parts of India during the pre-modern era. In the modern times infanticide has mostly been replaced by female feticide. Lacking the religious prohibition against abortion, there has been a widespread adoption of the practice of selective abortion of the female fetuses in the Hindu community. In certain provinces of India, the ratio of female to male births is up to 11 less than the natural ratio (Tandon  Sharma 2006).

In the traditional Hindu society, it is common to marry off pre-pubescent girls to adult men. This practice results many women becoming widows in their youth. Widows are looked down upon in the Hindu religion. They are considered the bearers of misfortune and inauspiciousness and are obliged to wear white clothes and to refrain from attending many types of social gatherings. Traditionally Hindu widows do not have the option of remarriage but have to live out their whole lives being considered pariah by the society. In previous times it was common for widows to e burned along their husbands on their funeral pyres. This practice was banned by the Mughal, the colonial British and the modern day Indian governments but a few incidents of widow burning still happen from time to time (Leslie 1992).

The Hindu community of India is deeply stratified by the caste system. If a woman marries or has sexual relations with a lower caste man, her kinsmen take it as an insult upon their honor. It is often believed that the insult can only be satisfied by killing both the woman and her paramour or husband. In addition in some areas it is taboo for a man and woman of the same village to marry and if they do so they are liable to be killed. These murders are often carried out with the general consent of the community and are thus never reported to the police, as a result there have been few prosecutions for these honor killings and even fewer convictions (Denyer 2008).

In colonial times, the issue of the status of the women of India was seized up by the British intellectuals to advance the interests of imperialism. This was perhaps done cynically or as a method of assuaging their own guilt and of justifying to themselves the brutal policies of the British colonialists. In post-colonial times, criticism of the status of women in India often comes from those who are prone to Western triumphalism. Criticizing a third world nations treatment of their women is the sort of political argument that is designed to appeal to both sides of the general political divide in the West It appeals to the Liberals because they are in favor of feminism and womens rights and it appeals to Conservatives because, coming from the mouths of Western intellectuals, it becomes an expression of the superiority of Western civilization to other civilizations, and by extension, the superiority of those who were responsible for the creation of the Western civilization i.e. White people to the others.

Criticism of the way women are treated in various countries has also been used as a pseudo-justification for military invasion and occupation of those countries. The argument that military invasion and occupation of a nation is justified by the alleged mistreatment of a nations women by that nations men is a false argument because military occupation of any nation is an act of violence and oppression against the whole nation men, women and children. Acts of oppression by one section of a nations population against another section of their population do no justifying oppression against the whole nation.

Criticism of another country or culture for how they treat their women is therefore fraught with danger, on one side there are cultural mores and behaviors that, from a Western point of view, appear to be entirely oppressive toward women. In case of Hinduism some cultural practices such as Sati (widow burning) appear entirely indefensible and completely alien to the culture of the West.
Appealing to the work of Western educated Indian intellectuals is not much help either. Some of the Western educated Indian intellectuals are obviously affiliated with the of the Hindutva movement and their works can be classified as belonging to the genre of Hindu Apologetics, others such as V. S. Naipaul are often charged with a slavish adoration of Western culture and a form of racist self-hatred. Some others seem to be as puzzled by how to deal with the problem of womens inequality in Hindu society and prevent one from falling into cultural imperialism at the same time. One such writer sarcastically refers to the anti-Sati laws imposed by the British as White men are saving brown women from brown men while noting that the justification offered by Hindu apologetics The women wanted to die is rather less than convincing (Spivak 1999).

In addition, it is not clear that Western educated individuals can be much help in portraying the Hindu point of view at all, given their cultural distance from those who actually engage in activities such as Sati. This includes those intellectuals who are a part of the Hindutva movement, in fact early Western educated Hindutva leaders such as Pandit Madan Mohan Malaviya advocated an end to many of the most anti-female practices of classical Hinduism such as the ban on the remarriage of widows on the grounds that it caused women to abandon Hinduism and marry Muslim men (Gupta 2002).

The question of whether the Indian womens primary site of oppression is their homes is a loaded question, on one hand it seems obvious that traditional Hinduism oppresses women in many ways, including in their homes and on the other hand if our answer is yes then what is the way to get Indian women out of this oppression, should we advocate a massive international military intervention in India to liberate Indian women from their men Should the Indian women take all girl children into custody All these solutions are impractical and, quite likely to result in greater misery for Indian women. Anyone perturbed by the plight of Indian women should keep in mind that at the end, Indian women and Indian men have to live with each other. Any changes in the status of Indian women can only come about gradually, in a process spanning many generations.

A central theme of this exhibit is certainly the role changing environment has played in human evolution. Explain the role environment has played in human evolution.

After visiting the new David Koch Hall of Human Origins Exhibit in the Smithsonian Institution, Museum of Natural History, it can be inferred that the main concept being portrayed in the said display is the important role that the environment has played in the evolution of human species. Consequently, the previously mentioned idea has long been acknowledged by a number of scientists and researchers worldwide and was cited in various scientific studies and research investigations.
Environment is a said to be the main substrate that brings about changes in the life of early humans (Smithsonian Institution, 2010). The environment being defined here includes all the living and non-living elements that affect the manner by which humans live their lives and these are characterized by climate changes, fluctuations in temperature, topographic features of the land, the animals that thrive in the area of concern, and the overall intra- and inter-specific interactions of these organisms (Sample, 2007). One specific example of the impact of environmental activities to human evolution is seen on the events that took place in eastern Africas ancient climate. These events are deemed to have occurred about 2.5 million, 1.5 million, and 1 million years ago, periods which are also considered to be the era when important human species have emerged (Sample, 2007). These early human species are composed of the Homo habilis, Australopithecus afarensis, and the Homo erectus, humans species who were expert on the various usages of stones and on hunting (Sample, 2007). The coincided emergence of these human species with the shift on climatic features of the Earth during these times clearly signifies an important role of the environment to the development of the lives of our early ancestors. In order to further illustrate the changes in the features of the environment that shaped the future of human species, it will be necessary to cite specific examples of the effects of climate changes on the path of human evolution.

First, sudden shift in the temperature of eastern Africa about 3million years ago resulted to drastic changes in the landscape of the said area (Sample, 2007). Researchers found out that lakes of about 300 meters deep were discovered to have been present in many regions of the area but eventually vanished as a result of climate changes and temperature elevation. A direct consequence of the said event is the death of the organisms that were deriving food and water from the lakes, an event which has resulted to the subsequent rupture of the biological food chains and eventual death of the organisms (Sample, 2007). In this case, the aquatic-based population of living organisms, like freshwater fishes, depleted and left the humans with less food for consumption.

Another notable event is the conversion of the forest landscapes to unfruitful land areas which are not suitable for supporting the growth of plants and other botanical species (Sample, 2007). Accounts on the investigations of the eastern Africa have shown that this area has encountered about 450C of atmospheric temperature which resulted to the depletion of natural resources. In the face of these occurrences, hominids tried to adapt themselves on the facets of the changing environment. Many were able to successfully withstand the alterations in the environmental setting by allowing the development of larger brains, more powerful jaws, and more diverse food choices (Sample, 2007). Others, however, failed to adapt and evolve thereby preventing the proliferation of their genetic linkage in the succeeding generations.

In general, the exhibit showed that the early human species made adjustments in accordance to the changes that happen in their surroundings (Smithsonian Institution, 2010). Changes in the temperature gradient, water availability, and land fertility all contributed to the quality of life that the human species will have. Hence, any alteration or drastic changes on the features of these factors had brought about significant changes in human evolution.

What is the theme or take-home message of this exhibit
It is believed that the take-home message of the exhibit is to remind the viewers of the importance of the environment in the lives of humans. In connection to present issues in global warming, the exhibit serves as a direct warning of the things that might happen to the human population today if we will not take care of our environment and will allow the destruction of our natural resources. While it is true that the environment provides humans with numerous resources, it is equally important for people to take care of the environment. Humans must work hand-in-hand to prevent the abusive utilization of our natural resources and everyone must be aware of the issues that concern our Mother Earth.

Life on Earth is made possible by the numerous interactions that characterize our surroundings. Destruction or death of any of the elements on these interactions will surely result to notable changes. In like manner, it is important for humans to take care of the environment because all of us are gaining benefits from it. Lastly, the David Koch Human origins Exhibit is a simple everyone of what has the modern human species has achieved and the responsibilities that goes along with these evolutionary achievements.

In his scholarly book, Guns, Germs and Steel. The Fate of Human Societies, Jared Diamond presents his theory to explain the dominance of the Eurasian peoples over the rest of the world. Diamond, a physiologist and evolutionary biologist, states as his main thesis that this is due primarily to environmental differences which facilitated earlier evolutionary development giving them the capacity to dominate and conquer other peoples in the world without these advantages. Briefly the theory could be described as geography determinism the guns, germs and steel of the title are representative of the elements of that dominance. For example guns refer to superior weaponry in general as well as military organization, not merely just to guns per se. The germs represent the advantages the European conquerors had because they brought their diseases with them which decimated many of the vanquished Indians since the had no immunity resistance. Of course the Europeans also suffered from previously unknown diseases, but they were better able to cope because of their overall advantage. Steel represents their general technological advantage in many areas such as food production. Diamond explicitly rejects any notion that their advantage is due to racial, genetic andor intelligence superiority.

         Diamond argues that most of humanitys achievements, (scientific, artistic, architectural, political etc.) have occurred on the Eurasian continent because their environment favored the development of civilization.. While their original populations pursued a hunter-gatherer lifestyle, they were the first to develop agriculture because of their better natural endowment of crops and  animals that could be easily domesticated. The Eurasian continent with its east-west axis provided large areas with similar latitudes and similar climates, making it easier for migrating populations to adapt their plants and animals to new areas, which was not possible for continents such as the Americas with a north-south axis and therefore different climates. The superior agriculture of the Eurasians not only produced more nutritious food, but also an abundance of it enabling the growth of population centers which in turn  required ruling classes and supporting bureaucracies and eventually the organization of empires. The production of food surpluses meant that no longer was everyone required to work in farming, but they could now engage in other occupations such as artisans and builders, and thus specialization of labor developed. Also food not required for consumption could be traded for other valued commodities. As societies evolved civilizations and powerful governments were aided by new technologies such as writing and navigational devices. Eventually centralized governments maintained power by disarming the populace and starting their own armies. This power was further reinforced by making the masses happy by redistributing the tax income, keeping order and promoting religion and ideology that justifies their privileged position. To support his theory, Diamond discusses several specific examples of successful conquests by Europeans over perceived disadvantaged peoples of the world explaining in detail in each case his rationale for their success based on his view of their inherent advantage.

            In my view, Diamond makes a convincing case to explain the environmental factors that enabled the rise of powerful civilizations in Eurasia and hence their physical ability to  dominate and conquer other less advantaged populations because of their having the misfortune to be located in less advantaged environments. However he is less successful in analyzing why they did so and why their own populations acquiesced in the conquests. The European rulers embarked on these ventures likely because of greed for the riches allegedly available in the faraway territories, competition with neighboring states and a desire to show that they are more powerful and finally simply because they had the ability to do so. In so far as their subjects were concerned, to the extent they were aware of these conquests, they were encouraged to regard the conquered peoples as vastly inferior if not really human or there was a very paternalistic attitude that the conquerors knew what was best for those subjugated The slave trade exemplifies the former attitude where inferior Africans were useful only to provide labor for the economic ventures of their masters, such as in the cotton industry in the United States. Others not aware or concerned about the potential harm to native culture, tried to turn their subjects into docile Christians. The European rulers socialized their subjects into acquiescing to colonial expansionism by invoking a mixture of religion and patriotism. They were taught that they were Gods chosen people and therefore superior to the conquered natives and it was their Christian duty to convert them to adopt not only their religion but also their value system. By so doing it was expected that any resistance to their occupation would be significantly weakened. Hence schools were set up to indoctrinate Indian and Eskimo children which had devastating effects on their psyche ands culture especially when some masters took advantage of  the childrens vulnerability with acts of physical and sexual abuse. In a similar way the morality of the slave trade was justified by the conviction that the Europeans were Gods chosen people and that therefore it was their duty to care for the inferior blacks. Of course in reality the trade was established for purely economic reasons such as supporting the cotton industry in the United States. Therefore, although environmental conditions in Europe were favorable to the development of powerful civilizations which physically enabled them to embark on a path of colonization of less developed territories, this activity could not have occurred without the socialization of the masses through religion and patriotic fervor  to render it legitimate. Before royal abuses led to the spread of democracy in Europe the masses in nation states generally accepted royal heredity rule which gave them a free hand to pursue their expansionist desires

              While there is no doubt the military might of the Europeans was superior to that of the territories they conquered, these conquests might not have been so easy if they were not helped by social factors within the vanquished peoples. For example, there is no evidence that the Indians had a war prone culture since when they first landed the Europeans were greeted as friendly traders. It was only after the latter revealed their true expansionist motives that hostilities began. Also initially the Indians thought that the Europeans where white gods that their mythology taught them would some day arrive from the sea. Also when the Spaniards invaded the Mayan civilization of what is now Central America it was already

In decline with city states preoccupied fighting one another.
Perhaps if the Spaniards had arrived when the Mayan civilization was at the peak of its power the former may have been rebuffed. Therefore, while environmental conditions in Europe was fertile ground for the rise of its powerful civilization, allowing it to embark on a path of colonization, the success of it may have been less if they had to face other civilizations at the peak of their development.

          I take some issue with the notion that the successful Eurasian rise of civilization was due to their east-west axis. While acknowledging that this factor was beneficial in enabling the spread of similar plants and animal domestication in large areas with similar latitude and climate, I would argue that major civilizations in the world have evolved in areas without an east-west axis. For example, consider major civilizations in the Americas such as the Incas, Aztecs and especially the Mayans .In fact when the latter were at the peak of their power, probably around 1000 AD, the Europeans were stagnating in the Dark Ages and at that time would most likely not have had the ability to conquer them. Also although at the time they had an abundance of food supply with good farming practices, they had few if any domesticated animals. With their knowledge of astronomy, invention of the calendar, building skills and other scientific achievements in many ways they were more advanced than their European contemporaries.. Although the precise cause of  the disintegration of the Mayan civilization has not been verified it probably started  with over farming and lack of conservation of these resources which the ruling priests were unable to deal with. This lead to fighting amongst city states for scarcer resources and a loss of regard by the masses for the legitimacy of the ruling priests who impoverished them with ever increasing taxes. Thus like many civilizations to date it had largely imploded from within before the arrival of the Spanish.

        In conclusion I would argue that while hospitable environmental  conditions are required for the development of powerful civilizations as described by Diamond, I submit that all the elements listed by him are not necessary, and that equally strong civilizations can emerge in areas other than Eurasia with a different resource base. I think a good analogy would be the evolution versus historical particularism debate. I submit these two concepts are not necessarily contradictory, because societies can evolve in different ways and yet both achieve comparable development. Consider the Mayan civilization for example. They had neither domesticated animals nor an east-west axis and although they eventually imploded, at its peak it far exceeded most of its contemporaries including in Eurasia. This shows that the evolution of civilizations does not require all the elements listed by Diamond even though  they are all undoubtedly helpful. What is essential I would argue is an adequate resource base particularly for the production of abundant nutritious food. This promotes population growth and allows for division of labor free from survival concerns to build societies and advance technologies, etc. The other essential ingredient I would suggest is a social structure with ( in the eyes of the majority of the population) authority legitimately vested in rulers whether that be a chief, king or  some kind of elected political structure.  Civilization can only endure I would argue if these essential ingredients also remain intact.

Philippe Bourgois conducted fieldwork in urban United States and Central America in relation to political issues related to ethnicity, dislocation of street children, political violence, labor relations and popular resistance. In United States, Bourgois fieldwork mainly focuses on social suffering, cultural issues and political economy. His most recent work relates to substance abuse, homelessness, violence and HIV prevention. He argues that although inner city street culture of drug dealers emerges as a search for dignity and rejection of racism, it is one aspect that has led to personal degradation and community ruin. His assertion points out two interrelated concepts that are structure and agency used by anthropologists to understand how society is produced and reproduced. A major concern in this paper is an illustration on how structure and agency shape the lives of Primo Ceasar.  A close look of the two terms has an outstanding feature that relates to live at inner-city streets. Structure is the recurrent patterned arrangements which limit choices and opportunities posed by individuals. On the other hand, agency is the capacity of individuals to act independently and make their own free choices. It is the intention, dream, hope, determination and effort to do something for change in support of continuity. The relationship between structure and agency as applied by anthropologists to understand how society is reproduced include the concept of complementary forces. A society is a collection of individuals from different backgrounds and considers certain values. Structure influences human behavior and individuals are capable of changing social structures they inhabit. In reverse to this position, the capacity of individuals as agents to construct and reconstruct their worlds is a common aspect observed by anthropologists especially Philippe Bourgois. A major difference between structure and agency is that the latter relates to ability of actors to operate independently of social structure constraints. The usage of social science has shifted towards the problem of autonomy. In this context, agency raises questions about importance of human intentions, nature and social aspect of freewill, political capacity and moral choice. Social structure determine individuals action in the aspect of what they think or feel about engaging in particular issues of life separated by external powers. A good example to reflect the concept of structure and agency is in the case of team members in sportsmanship. Each team member has the right to exercise freedom out of their own will but extent of action is governed by traditionally accepted rules of behavior in respect to a particular sport. In essence pressure from authorities and peers f prevents individuals from going against anything they would like to do. Another applicable example in relation to structure and agency is the inner-city life on the streets that results from social segregation of children leading to rise of homelessness. Street children in most urban centers are as a result of social marginalization that sees many of the children leave their homes to start life of drugs in urban centers.

    Structure and agency are common elements in life that shapes life of many individuals including Primo, Ceasar and Candy. The educational concept of ethnographies is emphasis on racism, immigration and sexism. Considering the concept of structure and agency in the aspect of freedom to carry on with personal activities out of free will is against political and social resistance. Primo a manager of crack house was one of the best friends to Philippe Bourgois and his life was shaped by following concepts of structure and agency. He never liked school and doing homework was one of the worst mistakes in his school life. The culture in New York City of rural working class affected many intimate relationships at young age and Primo fell in this category. In addition being way from parents meant inappropriate mechanism of escaping from ethnicity considerations.  Primo inherited his mothers identities and employee traits at inner-city street shop. He was very problematic to teachers and played certain tricks to protect himself from insults by his teachers. The conflict between Primo and teachers resulted to a bad relationship between son and mother. As a responsible mother, she instead Primo should respect teachers for better grades but this worsened the situation. Finding it hard to achieve in class, Primo opted for street culture where he started committing violent crimes. Out of free will a concept of agency, Primo adapted street culture in the context of accent, body language, clothing and play style. He was free to engage in any kind of activity as the environment allowed him to exercise the right of freedom. The bad relationship between Primo and his mother made him change his lifestyle to embrace street culture. This is a concept of structure and matters that arose such as failing to show his mother the grades he attained is an issue of agency. Having lived a life of freewill in the inner city Primo married and raised his family. He was bound to raise up his family a responsibility that saw him advice his own son to respect teachers for better results. The concept of structure and agency contributed to a certain level in the lives of Primo and many other people such as Ceaser and Candy. The common element among the three individuals was the concept of family, institutional and personal violent interfaces. Caesar was very violent and used to fight back at school that originated from the desire to exercise right of freedom.

Meritocracy in the US
    The myth of meritocracy in America is real and people believe that those who are poor deserve to be poor because of their laziness and stupidity. The poor believe that wealth in America is based on merit a concept that to my opinion is material. The wealthy in United States of America have their position because of hard work and academic performance. Laziness is one major factor that makes people in U.S to be poor as there are many opportunities that can make an individual exploit his or her potential. Hardworking people in America never fail to get job and it is the reason that probes people to travel oversees as a way of exploiting available opportunities. My opinion or take about meritocracy in U.S is that those Americans who consider wealth in America is as a result of hard work and intelligence are wrong. The small percentage of poor Americans is a as a result of laziness and ignorance. This is because U.S is one of the most powerful nations in the world with an economic structure that can support all its citizens. This means that there are a number of opportunities that can provide Americans and other immigrants with job opportunities for better life.

(1)The idea of cultural relativism circumvents in the ability of utilizing opportunities towards studying culture and its facets in a wider perspective without traces of bias and prejudice. Here, cultural relativism is an anthropological approach which posits that all cultures are of equal value and need to be studied from a neutral point of view (Glazer, 1996, p.1). Seeing its relevance within the discipline, this principle remains to be an important precept that shapes the outcome of any anthropological analysis or perspective.

    Methodologically, cultural relativism remains to be useful for scientists because of its ability to provide a keen sense of awareness on principles shaping how individuals and groups within a societal standpoint view reality. This then encourages greater means to synthesize research perspectives and widen new means towards valuing changes within the anthropological discipline.

    However, there are also associated limitations in this perspective. Here, they include (1) ascertaining similarities in different cultures, (2) hinders the ability to establish a common viewperspective in addressing elements prevalent in different cultures, and (3) may prove to be problematic in seeking to outline a comparative perspective among cultures for it may create one that is greater or supplements the principles that are studied

(2)    Applied anthropologists can facilitate change and stabilization within the Iraq in the aftermath of the 2003 war by bringing in the anthropological and social climate shaping policy implementation and development in the region. Here, it resonates with the ability to understand the differing perspectives in terms of values and culture between the U.S. troops and the numerous religious parties in Iraq. Given the diversity of affiliations among Iraqis, it can also be seen that they share a differing view of analyzing democracy and how the current situation is catering towards further destabilization of their culture and identity. Seeing the ability of applied anthropologists in catering towards a diverse and wider view in specific observations, their policies are more in-tune with reality and what Iraqis need sociologically and anthropologically speaking.

    On the other hand, the ability of anthropologists to address these issues in Iraq would remain feasible but never an easy task to accomplish. This is because there are corresponding challenges that need to undertaken and experienced. Since these anthropologists are also outsiders, it may take time for acceptable policies are incorporated into the system. So if policy makers desire a short-term strategy, this process remains to be difficult to achieve.

(3)    The idea of participant observation revolves in the process of seeking to understand the dynamics shaping a particular culture or group. In particular, the researcher participates in peoples daily lives and records what he or she sees and hears (Minnesota State University, 2003, p.1). Such actions then encourage better view and analysis on how these principles equally shape actions and responsiveness of actors in different issues shaping their realities.

    Analyzing its strengths, the value of participant observation establishes better means of analyzing issues and trends in a more effective manner. Since the information gained is through the researchers experience, it is more in-tune with reality and fosters greater appreciation of an anthropological issue. Similarly, it also shows how people perceive knowledge and develop a keen sense of how culture shapes lives (Minnesota State University, 2003). However, one drawback of this approach remains in the value that researchers analyze data. Here, since they are immersed with the culture, interpretations may become biased or opinionated. The idea of fieldwork remains important in anthropology because it bridges the study from theoretical perspective to what is happening in reality. It is in here that anthropologists can study issues in a clearer and direct manner.

(4)    Assessing the differences between horticulturalists, agriculturalists, and industrialized farmers, it can be seen that their divergence corresponds to specific farming methods and how it is administered accordingly. In particular, horticulturalists seek to develop and adapt to the current trends shaping crop development. Here, they try to incorporate traditional and new methods (technology) to help innovate and promote continued effectiveness and growth in their specific specialization. This then encourages better means for expanding and maintaining crop diversity.

    On the other hand, an agriculturalist revolves around the cultivation of the soil. Their main focus has been to allow the land to provide effective means for crops and different plants to grow and develop. Here, they are primarily concerned only with reinforcing means for land to continue to be supplemental for plant life and crop development. In essence, they see the soil as primary catalyst in reinforcing stability and sustainability in farming methods.

    Lastly, an industrial farmer is one that seeks to promote efficiency with the incorporation of technology and new methods related to increasing productivity and profit. It can be seen that the main focus of this process corresponds to the value of enhancing crops and land to meet the demands of the business.

    The natural asphalt deposits at Rancho La Brea, more commonly known as the La Brea Tar Pits, have produced hundreds of thousands of fossils since geological investigations began in 1901. In 1875, Rancho owner Major Henry Hancock noticed that ancient bones were occasionally turned up as customers hauled away brea for their personal use.  More extensive geological investigations from 1913 to 1915 established the archaeological importance of the site, and the area was re-established as Hancock Park in order to preserve the tar pits for an interested public and scientific community. The Page Museum of La Brea Discoveries, established in 1977, displays fossils retrieved from the tar pits and educates visitors on more general principles of geology. 

    The majority of plants and animals preserved as fossils at Rancho La Brea are from the later Pleistocene epoch, approximately 10,000 to 40,000 years ago.  Visitors to the Page Museum are reminded that this period is relatively late in terms of geologic time, coming nearly 65 million years after the extinction of the dinosaurs.  Radiometric dating has been used to establish the age of the fossils recovered.  The most successful method of radiometric dating used at La Brea has measured the reversion to nitrogen of carbon-14, a radioactive isotope whose half-life is 5,370 years. 

    Fossils have been preserved remarkably well at La Brea.  Rapid sedimentation at the site, taking place over thousands of years, kept a great deal of organic material from succumbing to decay.  The asphalt that seeped to the surface through ancient stream channel deposits, creating puddles of tar, is responsible for the wealth of fossils found at the site.  Animals were often trapped in these tar puddles deceptively covered with leaves and a layer of dirt. Once trapped, these animals would lure larger predators and scavengers to the area, leading to further entrapment.  As the bones of trapped animals rotted free from soft tissue they were saturated with asphalt and began to settle in the mire.  Cool winters solidified the tar and allowed layers of sediment to accumulate.  Warm summers allowed asphalt to flow in and reset the animal trap.  While the movement of sediment and asphalt allowed for the high-quality preservation of individual bones, it also served to mix fossils together, making complete skeletons exceedingly rare.  The churning of the asphalt also produces what is known as pit wear, holes and grooves made in bones as they rub together (Harris 13).

    Early excavations focused on recovering large and more spectacular mammals from the mire while the microfossils that could have told scientists a great deal about the Pleistocene climate and flora were largely ignored (Harris 15).  In 1969 a Natural History Museum excavation of Pit 91 endeavored to collect those important microfossils.  Fossils of more than 140 species of plants and 400 species of animals have now been recovered. Many extinct animals have been reconstructed from bones gathered from La Brea, but microfossils have also helped to paint a picture of the ecosystem and climate of the Los Angeles area 40,000 years ago.  Perhaps surprisingly, the Ice Age climate of Los Angeles was much as it is now, only slightly more humid and lacking the extreme heat the area often experiences today.  The remains of La Brea flora, consisting mainly of drought-tolerant scrub brush, have shed a great deal of light on the Pleistocene climate in the region.  Ecological patterns can be surmised from the Chaparral commonly found at the site, as it depends on fire to thrive.  

    The fossils recovered from La Brea show that the glaciers and ice sheets often associated with the Ice Age were not present in this region.  One hundred thousand years ago, Rancho La Brea lay well below the surface of the Pacific Ocean.  The sea retreated as the last age of glaciation began, and stream erosion of the Hollywood Hills made for heavy sedimentation.  Crude oil has been seeping up from the earths surface in the La Brea area for the past 40,000 years.  Biologists and paleontologists have been comparing the fossils of animals found in La Brea with their closest living relatives in order to form a clearer understanding of climatic and environmental changes over millennia.  The fauna of the region are well documented by excavations at La Brea.

    Perhaps the most famous find at La Brea is the skull and partial skeleton of La Brea Woman, the only human remains found in the pits.  Various theories have been proposed to explain the presence of her remains. Her fractured skull has led some to speculate that she was murdered by a blow to the head and her body dumped in a shallow tar pool (Harris 24). Less speculative anatomical studies show that the remains of the 20-25 year-old woman are nearly 9,000 years old, and that she has the worn teeth of someone accustomed to a diet of stone-ground meal.

    Le Brea is also well known for the remains of the Imperial Mammoth and American Mastodons on display at Page Museum, both of which are, of course, extinct.  Reconstructions of Imperial Mammoth skeletons show that the animal could stand nearly 13 feet tall and weigh close to 10,000 pounds.  Evidence of the of history of the mastodon familys migration, lineage, and relationship to its distant relative, the elephant, are also confirmed by La Brea fossils.  Forty-five million years ago, the mastodon family appeared in Africa, though mastodons reached North America only 15 million years ago during the Middle Miocene.  Mammoths, much smaller than mastodons, are more closely related to Indian and African elephants, as similarities in the teeth of the fossils recovered at La Brea show.  Mammoths and elephants migrated from Africa 5 million years ago, though only the mammoth reached the Americas.

    If the Natural History Museum of Los Angeles is to be believed, the saber-toothed cat most vividly captures the imagination of park visitors (Harris 46).  The remains of the fearsome creature have been named the official state fossil of California and are the second most commonly recovered fossil from La Brea.  The dagger-like teeth protruding from the jaw of the saber-toothed cat seem to indicate a gruesome hunting and killing process.  The fossil evidence at sites such as La Brea has led some scientists to conclude, however, that the large canine teeth were used to slash open the underbelly of captured prey, and not actually to kill (Harris 47). The biomechanics of this process can only be understood from well-preserved fossils such as those found at La Brea.  

    The fossil remains of mammoths, mastodons, and saber-toothed cats at La Brea are the mysterious record of a distant extinction event occurring roughly 11,000 years ago, though there is evidence of extinctions as recently as 8,000 years ago.  The reason for the extinctions are a matter of considerable debate (Harris 75).  The presence of humans, and human predation, is a likely contributor to the extinctions.  Climatic shifts are also thought to have first caused the extinction of herbivores and then the large carnivores who preyed on them.  The spectacular preservation of La Brea fossils, in many cases retaining fragments of food in animals teeth, has provided valuable information needed to shed light on the extinction mystery.

    Even after decades of research, the La Brea asphalt deposits continue to provide new discoveries.  In 2009, researchers from  Page Museum launched Project 23, hoping to usher in a new era of research and discovery (Science Daily).  The project uncovered the first complete mammoth found at Rancho La Brea, a creature the scientists nicknamed Zed. Scientists have halted excavations at Pit 91 (mentioned above) to focus on Project 23.  A new exhibit of La Brea fossils is planned for 2010, and researchers continue to learn about changes in Pleistocene flora, fauna, and climate.

Gender and Migration
    The recognition of liberal states from the west as humanitarian regions has been conceptualized to maintain a broad variety of strategies in western liberal states, from the reception of expatriates to equipped intervention in conflicts within a state. Like in Canada and Australia, including many liberal states from the west, the approval and execution of the 1951 Refugee Convention was warranted as unswerving with and substantiation of the states civilized account. Nevertheless, the question of intercontinental resettlement expresses that the states approval of humanitarianism does not symbolize a reception of a broad-based ethic, to a certain extent a state-centered idea of humanitarianism where the fortification of humanitarianism is considered as the superior good than the defense of persons. By this essence, humanitarianism is reliant on the safeguarding of state autonomy. This is manifested in the dissertation on refugees seeking refugee identity. In some cases, the detection of the state as a humanitarian state has fashioned results likely of humanitarian states, and has been utilized to validate contributing security of refugees. Conversely, certain circumstances show that the humanitarianism of the receiving state has been acknowledged as the entity that necessitates shield, mitigating rebuffing guard to refugees.

Forced migration experiences have an existent gender-related differential impacts (Mahler, 2006). Population movements are gender-neutral however, the reasons for men, women, children, youth and the elderly to transfer may be at variance because of the different experiences they encounter. The probability that the aforementioned sectors move are high because of the present trends in the political and economic sphere of the world. Initiating a gendered trend, then, into the subject of forced migration appears to be just about usual inclination. On the other hand, studies about forced migration provided little concentration to gender despite the fact that the last several decades provide many related literature that show many disciplines in many fields have used certain methodologies that include the theme of gendered-forced migration. Having said that, Grasmuck and Pessar (1991) disputes that migration is not merely a process that is best understood in economic andor political terms it is a socio-cultural process that is mediated by gendered and kinship ideologies, institutions, and practices. There are several bases that can be attributed to the gendered nature of forced migration and the statement asserted by Grasmuck and Pessar reaffirms that the gendered nature of forced migration goes beyond institutional linkages to the personal experiences in the household. Women were usually discriminated on the basis of their capability in performing duties in the workforce and even discriminated on the mere basis of men being more capable. Women were seen as passive players in development unlike men who are always the active stakeholders. In other words, from the domestic sphere to workplace, women experience human rights violations.

    In 1990, Rathgeber outlined some strategies to address gender discrimination linking to its relationship to forced migration, which he regards as a male phenomenon, because forced migration was viewed as a discrimination against men since it usually happened because of the need for strong labor force (Santos, 2008). Since women account to a significant number in the population of people in the whole world, there has been a tremendous need for efforts that will include women in movements as active players rather than as passive players which they have been documented as for a long period of time. Rathgeber mentioned strategies such as the Women in Development (WID), Women and Development (WAD), and Gender and Development (GAD) as approaches that will uplift the status of women in terms of development. The Women in Forced Migration Theory (WIFM) and Gender and Forced Migration Theory (GAFM) were developed at later stages to address forced migration situations, assess their impact on women and gender, and apply this approach to emergency programming (Rathgeber, 1990 p. 489-502). The assertions made by Rathgeber are an alternative view of viewing the gendered nature of displacement experiences. The fact that women have to engage first in a crucial role in organizing themselves is already one proof that, indeed, there is a discrimination that is occurring. Although still bombarded with discriminations and abuses, the role women play has had a massive change in the context of development such that the changes are comparable to earlier development theories. . The Women in Forced Migration Theory (WIFM) provide the idea of being into women refugees requirements in isolation while the Gender and Forced Migration Theory (GAFM) includes the analysis of how social roles are determined by the societies and the manner by which it influences the needs of women refugees.

    The Women In Development (WID) appraoch started the mainstreaming of womens struggle the gendered society in relation to the issue of forced migration. In this movement, women are seen as a passive player in development, but not of equivalent importance to development. This circumstance paved the way for the Women And Development (WAD) approach which is an assertion that women is not just a passive player in the realm of development but an active stakeholder which is of equal fundamentality to men in the aspect of radical changes in the society. The WAD movement is the turning point of the vision that women are, indeed, needed for development although the demarcation and stratification against women still exists. This eventually turned into the more contemporary Gender and Development (GAD) movement which relates that women is as active as men in the field of development, but not the extent that it becomes a battle against them rather a fight side by side with men.

Mainstreaming Gender
    In a study conducted by Callamard (1991), he pushes that the gendered and sexual nature of the refugee experience through a review of existing evidence on the discrimination faced by refugee women in terms of access to international assistance, income and physical protection. It is in this study that he asserts that the patriarchal tendencies of the society has even more been intensified by the failure of refugee assistance programs. These programs have failed to recognize the influence and means of subordination, domination and exclusion of captive women has been affecting the roles these women portray in the productive domain of the household. The political and power structure, therein, magnify patriarchy in the society. In Callamards study, he is mentioning the possibility that if the intercession necessitates testing worldwide obligatory characteristics and systems of conduct, it also entails the restructuring or rebuilding of power in the manner that are hardly ever going to advance the most disadvantaged individuals, whom are primarily women. Likewise, Indra (1999) suggests that before becoming refugees, refugee womens experiences in flight and during asylum can lead to empowerment through a process of politicization and self-awareness.

    Since the failure to address the needs of refugees or forced migrants is already identified, there must be an initiative to combat it. In more recent times, the idea of mainstreaming gender has been developed to promote the welfare of women in equality to the status men have.  Mainstreaming gender is a concept that has started in 1995 in the field of gender analysis and planning. The United Nations Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) defined gender mainstreaming in July 1997 as the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programs, in any area and at all levels. It is a strategy for making the concerns and experiences of women as well as of men an integral part of the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programs in all political, economic and societal spheres, so that women and men benefit equally, and inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal of mainstreaming is to achieve gender equality. Carolyn Hannan, Director of the UN Division for the Advancement of Women, enumerated the summary of the basic principles of gender mainstreaming to be as follows

Adequate accountability mechanisms for monitoring progress need to be established. The initial identification of issues and problems across all area(s) of activity should be such that gender differences and disparities can be diagnosed. Assumptions that issues or problems are neutral from a gender-equality perspective should never be made. Gender analysis should always be carried out. Clear political will and allocation of adequate resources for mainstreaming, including additional financial and human resources if necessary, are important for translation of the concept into practice. Gender mainstreaming requires that efforts be made to broaden womens equitable participation at all levels of decision-making. Mainstreaming does not replace the need for targeted, women-specific policies and programmes, and positive legislation nor does it do away with the need for gender units or focal points.

    The concept of gender mainstreaming is not solely about bringing in the interest of women to the level of participation. It goes beyond women being able to speak their concerns. Gender mainstreaming raises several issues, which have to be addressed as soon as possible. Like the problem of forced migration experienced around the world, women have been at the forefront of report of violation because are found to be prone to violence since they are identified as weaker than men. The concept of gender mainstreaming cuts across the stratification of the sexes and bridges the gap, which can eventually lead to gender equality, the utmost goal of gender mainstreaming.

    In 2005, Rao and Kelleher offered a view about mainstreaming gender by saying that gender mainstreaming is grounded in feminist theoretical frameworks, and its appeal to femocrats and to gender activist was its promise of transformation (p. 57-69). They are asserting that the motive of gender mainstreaming is in a difficult phase because of several arbitrations and hindrances that challenge the solidity of gender mainstreaming.

    A society is a transformative transition with regards to gender roles, ethnic identity, religion and forced migration. Transformation is, superficially, an opinionated and individual course. Institutions edge or improve deprived peoples right to liberty, independence of choice, and act. Without a decisive indulgence if how institutions require changing to permit dissimilar social orders to protect their prerogatives and admissive chances for socio-economic mobility, progressive goals cannot be materialized. Furthermore, Batliwala (2006) offers that feminist thinking about empowerment directly engages with resources, power, ideology, and institutions  which implies a symbiotic relationship between power and ideology, which gains expression and perpetuation through structures of all kinds- judicial, economic, social, and political. Empowerment in this framework therefore means a transformation in power relations. Specifically it means control over resources (Physical, human, intellectual, intangible) control over ideology (beliefs, values, attitudes) and changes in the intuitions and structures that support unequal power relations.

Society
This model was inspired by the peace-building approach (peace and conflict resolution studies) with modifications of  some of the key points mentioned by Arunas work. Principally, this graph translates and introduces to gender mainstreaming as a top-down, bottom-up approach. More often than not, gender mainstreaming is much more inclined on the necessity of leadership with vision, gender equality on agenda designed especially to the structures in mainstreaming gender, which brings social change, and modifications in idelogy and culture, with emphasis on unequal power relations. Informal pressure including religious beliefs and identities to  faith bound community  people affected by forced migration is, then, regarded as the external force that will pave the way for the efforts of the refugees to materialize. For one, the constant prayerfulness of some women in refugee camps in Israel will be put into effort of trying to provide solutions, after an informal group, which promotes peace, convinced them that prayers will only be answered after they organize themselves thus, there is a need for community organizing in this part of the process.

Religion and Forced Migration
The role of religion on forced migrants is another important consideration to understand the gendered nature of refugee community. Gozdziak and Shandy (2002) states the relationship between religious persecution and refugee is central to definition of a refugee, has been long considered of importance as a root cause of fight, and should be of equal importance in protection of refugees. Further, they assert that when religion is considered in studies of refugees, it most often receives attention for its role in conflict setting and the politicization of religious identity.  The study about the spirituality of people in captivity is another theme becoming popular as it includes the manner by which the role of religion helps people to cope with trauma. The significance of spiritual viewpoints in managing with conversion broadens further than the migrant site to amalgamation into a realm of settlement. Religion functions in convincing, opposing and conflicting conducts while it influences the familiarities of expatriates, helping as a spring of toughness as it both aids and obstructs the combination process. For example, Ruth Krulfelds study shows that change occurs even in those area of religion, in which ideology expressed symbolically tends to verify traditional gender roles. these areas are commonly thought of as repositories for the traditional rules and values of the society (Krulfeld, 1994 Crapo, 1993 Keyes, 1984).

Politics play a very crucial role in determining the part played by religion in the changes experienced by gender because of forced migration. The roles played differ because some countries serve as the melting pot of cultures when people from different nations go into one place to immerse. The shared experiences these people have translate to having a new breed of culture.  Ruether (1990) further asserts that in some cultures women are often denied both the knowledge and the practical skills required to initiate rituals. In fact most human religions, from tribal to dominant religions, have treated womens body, in its gender-specific sexual functions, as impure and polluted and this to be distanced from sacred and rites domination by males. . However, religion can also play as an area of for change and source of potential power for women, as they manipulate and negotiate gender identities in refugee culture. Krufelds case study demonstrated that Lao women can create important new roles in refugee communities due to displacement experiences where nun was able to negotiate new religious role and overcoming conservative practices and develop and reformulate new gender role.

Religious and gender dimensions of identities of forced migrants play important roles. Adapting in new setting in societies such as where they are less dominant locations forces them to change from previous roles and reconstruct to new gender roles. These major identities can be the source of transforming establishing new gender relations. Religion, for example, has to include in its teachings the virtue of equity and the aversion of discrimination against anyone. The value they will be inculcation to the people will result in a tremendous paradigm shift that will give women and children the value they rightfully deserve. Gender is not one-sided game, but an equal road for all parties involved. Holistic standpoint represents anthropologists to an investigation of a variety of communal and civilizing phenomena such as spiritual sacraments that mutually have a brunt on and are influenced by migration, especially because religion help the refugees seek comfort and sanctuary with the believe that God will provide serenity and safety to them as they go through the challenging phases of detention.

Gender, forced migration and religion are connective elements that can serve as basis for analysis. In 2002, Weinberg conceives that there is a difference between the attitude of men and women inside the camp of migrants. Men imagine escaping from prison through whatever means and even spend their time by playing games like chess and by talking about politics. On the other hand, women performed religious rituals to help them cope with their experiences inside the camp. The secure affiliations between central devout values and religious foundations with their related ceremonies and practices show that the dissimilarity between these is frequently unnoticed.  Refugee womens situation inside societies is synchronized by spiritual institution at the family and community levels. Conventions, which are often rationalized on religious bases, guarantee refugee womens compliance to conservative gender roles which can be the source of incapacity and twinge. Specifically, notions of fatalism which are integral to many religions, from Hinduism to Orthodox Christianity can offer comfort and to the powerless and an explanation for suffering, while at the same time constrain women and men from seeking change (Weinberg, 2002).  Equality benefits not only a specific gender but all to create more arenas for change, and source of potential power for women as they manipulate and negotiate gender identities in refugee culture.