Anthropology

The concept of violence is currently regarded as human reaction to specific situations that have inflicted discomfort in an individual.  The complexity of violence has increased in the last centuries, resulting in novel methods of inducing pain, suffering and even death to fellow human beings.  In order to better understand the concept of violence and physical aggression, information from archaeological and evolutionary studies have suggested possible scenarios that may have occurred during earlier periods.  Fossil skeletons uncovered from archaeological sites strongly show evidences of violence, with majority of the skeletons having accumulated fractures, depressions and holes in the skulls, as well as mutilations of other body parts.  Despite the observations of physical torture among fossil remains, there is still yet a need to estimate the period when warfare was first employed during feuds and other forms of aggression.

    Human beings are generally regarded as the most intelligent species among the great apes.  This biological species is often described to be capable of processing concepts, as well as communicating and expressing a wide range of emotions through physical, verbal and mental routes.  In addition, human beings are known to be educated and competent to achieve great accomplishments through training and experience.  However, there have also been certain issues that often put human beings in a position that often requires intimate analysis and comparison to its evolutionary predecessors.  One issue is violence, or physical aggression, that is usually regarded as the resultant emotion when a strong stimulus is presented to a human being that creates a sensation of discomfort (Boehm, 1992).  This report will provide an analysis of the nature of violence and aggression among human beings.

Human beings as member species of the Great Apes
    The highest order of primates is classified as the Great Apes, which is comprised of four species, namely the orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), the gorillas (Gorilla gorilla), the bonobos and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and humans (Homo sapiens).  The Great Apes species are physically featured with an almost erect posture and the presence of an opposable thumb.  The Great Apes are also devoid of a prehensile tail, which is a hallmark of Old and New World monkeys.  Fossil evidence has also shown that the skeletal structures of the Great Apes are also similar in form, yet the inner volume of the skull, which holds the brain, has been determined to be the biggest among humans.

    The advent of molecular biology techniques has also provided additional methods in elucidating the evolutionary connection between the members of the Great Ape species.  According to protein sequence comparisons, the Great Ape species are 98 similar in sequence, indicating that these higher primates must have descended from a common ancestor.  More importantly, the high homology between the protein sequences suggests that the divergence of the members of the Great Apes must have been recent and that this process may have served as the driving force for speciation.
There are also chromosomal rearrangements that have been identified among the Great Apes.  One of the most recognized chromosomal rearrangements is the fusion of chromosomes 13 and 14 in the non-human primates, resulting in the human paralogous chromosome 2.  The mechanism behind this chromosome fusion involves the head-to-head attachment of chromosomes 13 and 14 at the ends of each chromosome, or telomeres, consequent to the deactivation of one of the centromeres of the two chromosomes.  Nucleic acid sequence analysis has shown that the deactivated centromere could still be identified, mainly by screening for primate-specific deoxyribonucleic acid sequences known as alpha satellites.

Fossil record evidence for violence among the Great Ape species
    Fossil evidence has also provided substantial information on the ancestry among the higher primate species.  Excavated skeletons from the Taung quarry in South Africa were determined to have features similar to that of the apes and of humans.  These skeletal remains were then named Australopithecus africanus, to indicate that the fossil was derived from the southern part of this continent.  Aside from the physical similarities of the fossils to both apes and humans, anthropologists have also discovered fractures, holes and depression in most of the fossil skulls, especially those of the adult male skeletons (Fry, 2007a).  These lesions to the head were interpreted as signs of violence, indicative of physical aggression and hostility.  It is thus highly likely that the site of excavation was actually a repository for murdered primates.  It is also possible that certain rituals were performed before the killing of these primeval primates because most of the skulls of these australopithecines were characterized with depressions, or in other cases, holes, on both sides of the head. 

    Further analyses have generated a number of hypotheses that could possibly explain the actions associated with the depressed areas of the skull.  Physical anthropologists have suggested that australopithecines are generally hunters and gatherers and therefore the employment of bludgeons is a routine occurrence to these species.  It is also possible that these primates are carnivorous, as the flesh of other primates may be easier to procure that hunting for other more active mammals in the wild.  These reconstructions of australopithecine operations therefore support the notion that violence among human beings is simply a reflection of the biological descent of primate behavior.  The same similarities were observed during comparisons between aggression among bonobos and chimpanzees (De Waal, 2007).  The bonobos were reported to be more domineering, as compared to chimpanzees, which showed more of the quiet and peace-loving nature (Parker, 2007).  However, the exact nature of such violence among australopithecines remains unresolved, since there is not enough evidence to define the actual reason for such violence, whether this was mainly based on simple murder, a dispute over some important matter or a war between factions or individuals (Bower, 1991).

Archaeological evidence for aggression among earlier human populations
    The earliest accounts of violence and aggression among human beings have been documented approximately 12,000 years ago.  According to archaeological findings in Sudan, a burial site containing almost 60 individuals showed that most of these skeletons harbored skeletal defects that were characteristic of violent death (Fry, 2007b).  Analysts have suggested that this mass grave may have been a site where torture and physical aggression may have been performed to individuals who have been identified as opponents to their group.  This activity may have been a routine occurrence during times of war, as most of the skeletons belonged to adult males who fit the description of soldiers that are responsible for defending their community.

    Another excavation site is that uncovered in Jericho, wherein skeletons were dated back to approximately 10,000 years ago.  The same features of damages and fractures were observed in most of the skeletons, thus strengthening the notion that feuding and warfare are activities that were not recently developed, but have actually been observed thousands of years earlier.  Such observations are direct evidences of warfare and violence during earlier times.  

    The development of warfare during archaeological time points has been rather elusive.  Despite the significant discoveries of mass burial sites across the globe, evidences for actual warfare that date back to at least 10,000 years back have not been uncovered.  However, it is also important to keep in mind that the absence of warfare does not automatically mean that this concept has not been in existence at that point in time.  There are yet other forms of warfare that could have been employed during earlier times, such as simple clubs, as well as daggers that perform the same function of inflicting intense force onto another entity.  In addition, some excavation sites also show mutilation and removal of body parts, implying that physical destruction and pain was intentionally performed on these individuals, resulting in an intense method of torture and ultimately, death to the enemies (Jones, 2008).

    To date, the concept of warfare during the period beyond 10,000 years ago still remains elusive.  One main reason for such dilemma is the absence of archaeological evidence that specific instruments were employed during combat and feuding between individuals.  However, the violence and physical aggression is strongly supported by the injuries that have been embedded in fossil skeletons uncovered in different archaeological sites around the world.

    The capacity of human beings to engage in violence and physical aggression could be traced back to earlier human activities, as well as among the closest evolutionary relatives, namely the Great Ape species.  The discovery of archaeological sites harboring skeletons that are featured with fractures and other forms of physical damages are strong indicators that violence has indeed been an inherent feature of primate and human behavior.  Future discoveries will further strengthen the hypothesis that violence is an evolutionary artifact of the primate lineage.